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Older adults also experienced longer-lasting positive emotions and more fleeting negative moods brittle asthma definition cheap fluticasone online visa, suggesting that they are more able than younger adults to regulate their emotions asthmatic bronchitis elderly fluticasone 250mcg without prescription, savoring the happy experiences while cutting short the sad and angry ones (see also Kliegel, Jager, & Phillips, 2007). Finally, older adults appeared to have more complex emotional experiences, more often blending different emotions together. It is amply clear now that older adults lead rich and rewarding emotional lives and that they are able to experience and express emotions fully, and also regulate them effectively (Carstensen, Mikels, & Mather, 2006; Magai et al. Sherman, & Antonucci, 1998) and less likely to find them emotionally unpleasant (Akiyama et al. Like the infant who is attached to a parent, the adult who is in love experiences a strong emotional bond to her partner, wants to be close, takes comfort from the bond, and is upset by separations, as illustrated by the story of Mike and Marcy at the start of the chapter. Perhaps it is not surprising, then, that the concept of romantic love is not just a Western phenomenon or a modern phenomenon, as some people incorrectly believe (Hatfield & Rapson, 2006). Adults with a secure working model feel good about both themselves and others; they are not afraid of entering intimate relationships or of being abandoned once they do. People with a preoccupied internal working model have a positive view of other people but feel unlovable. Like resistantly attached infants, they crave closeness to others as a means of validating their self-worth, are highly fearful of abandonment, and tend to become overly dependent on their partners. It is also possible to look at these four types of attachment in terms of anxiety and avoidance dimensions (Gallo, Smith, & Ruiz, 2003; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003). The secure type is low in both anxiety over relationships (fear of abandonment) and avoidance of relationships (discomfort over being intimate with and dependent on someone); the preoccupied type is high in anxiety but low in avoidance; the dismissing type is low in anxiety but high in avoidance; and the fearful type is high in both anxiety and avoidance. I want emotionally close relationships, but I find it difficult to trust others completely or to depend on them. I sometimes worry that I will be hurt if I allow myself to become too close to others. It is very important to me to feel independent and self-sufficient, and I prefer not to depend on others or have others depend on me. Like avoidantly attached infants, they defend themselves against hurt by not expressing their need for love or their fear of abandonment. They downplay the importance of their relationships, find it hard to trust partners, feel that others want them to be more intimate than they wish to be, and keep partners at a distance. Bowlby (1973) described dismissing or avoidant individuals as "compulsively self-reliant. You may wish to see if you can identify the internal working models expressed by the statements in the Explorations box. It asks adults about their childhood experiences with attachment figures and about their current relationships with their parents and romantic partners, including their experiences with separation and rejection. Much is learned by seeing how freely and coherently adults talk about their early relationships. For example, dismissing adults prove unable to reflect on their early relationships with their parents; they may say all was great but provide no supporting evidence. Preoccupied adults have a lot to say, much of it emotionally charged, but they have difficulty integrating and gaining a perspective on their experiences. Secure adults are able to reflect on their family experience and make sense of it-even when they have had miserable childhoods. In a pioneering study conceptualizing romantic love as attachment, Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver (1987) classified 56% of the adults they studied as having a secure attachment style, 19% as resistant, and 25% as avoidant. Avoidant lovers fear intimacy, whereas resistant individuals tend to be obsessed with their partners. Both avoidant and resistant adults report a lot of jealousy and emotional extremes of love and pain in their romantic relationships.
Along the way many reactions-disbelief asthma and allergy associates order fluticasone with visa, hope asthma symptoms for adults purchase fluticasone 250 mcg with visa, terror, bewilderment, rage, apathy, calm, anxiety, and others- come and go and are even experienced simultaneously. According to Shneidman, then, dying people experience many unpredictable emotional swings rather than distinct stages of dying. Many dying people also experience the confusion of delirium in their last weeks (Pessin, Rosenfeld, & Breitbart, 2002). Depending on their predominant personality traits, coping styles, and social competencies, some dying people may deny until the bitter end, some may "rage against the dying of the light," some may quickly be crushed by despair, and still others may display incredible strength. The Experience of Bereavement Most of us know more about the process of grieving a death than about the process of dying. To describe responses to the death of a loved one, we must distinguish among three terms: Bereavement is a state of loss, grief is an emotional response to loss, and mourning is a culturally prescribed way of displaying reactions to death. Thus, we can describe a bereaved person who grieves by experiencing such emotions as sadness, anger, and guilt and who mourns by attending the funeral and laying flowers on the grave each year. Unless a death is sudden, relatives and friends, like the dying person, will experience many painful emotions before the death, from the initial diagnosis through the last breath (Grbich, Parker, & Maddocks, 2001). They also may experience what has been termed anticipatory grief-grieving before death occurs for what is happening and for what lies ahead (Rando, 1986). Yet no amount of preparation and anticipatory grief can eliminate the need to grieve after the death occurs. The Parkes/Bowlby Attachment Model Pioneering research on the grieving process was conducted by Colin Murray Parkes and his colleagues in Great Britain (Parkes, 1991, 1996, 2006; Parkes & Weiss, 1983). John Bowlby (1980), whose influential theory of attachment was outlined in Chapter 14, and Parkes have conceptualized grieving in the context of attachment theory as a reaction to separation from a loved one. As humans, we have evolved not only to form attachments but also to protest their loss. The Parkes/Bowlby attachment model of bereavement describes four predominant reactions. They overlap considerably and therefore should not be viewed as clear-cut stages even though the frequencies of different reactions change over time. These reactions are numbness, yearning, disorganization and despair, and reorganization (see also Jacobs et al. In the first few hours or days after the death, the bereaved person is often in a daze-gripped by a sense of unreality and disbelief and almost empty of feelings. He may make plane reservations, call relatives, or order flowers-all as if in a dream. Underneath this state of numbness and shock is a sense of being on the verge of bursting, and occasionally painful emotions break through. The bereaved person is struggling to defend himself against the full weight of the loss; the bad news has not fully registered. As the numbing sense of shock and disbelief diminishes, the bereaved person experiences more agony. Grief comes in pangs or waves that typically are most severe from 5 to 14 days after the death. The grieving person has feelings of panic, bouts of uncontrollable weeping, and physical aches and pains. She is likely to be extremely restless, unable to concentrate or to sleep, and preoccupied with thoughts of the loved one and of the events leading to the death. According to Parkes and Bowlby, the reaction that most clearly makes grieving different from other kinds of emotional distress is separation anxiety-the distress of being parted from the object of attachment. The bereaved person pines and yearns for the loved one and searches for the deceased. Both anger and guilt are also common reactions during these early weeks and months of bereavement. Bereaved people often feel irritable and sometimes experience intense rage-at the loved one for dying, at the doctors for not doing a better job, at almost anyone. One of the London widows studied by Parkes felt guilty because she never made her husband bread pudding. As time passes, pangs of intense grief and yearning become less frequent, although they still occur.
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Assuming that the greatest good for you or your company is in fact the greatest good for all-that is asthma treatment in cats cheap fluticasone 500 mcg amex, looking at situations subjectively or with your own interests primarily in mind asthma symptoms at 30 250 mcg fluticasone mastercard. The now-classic Ford Pinto case demonstrates how Ford Motor Company executives drastically underestimated the legal costs of not correcting a feature on their Pinto models that they knew could cause death or injury. General Motors was often taken to task by juries that came to understand that the company would not recall or repair known and dangerous defects because it seemed more profitable not to . Underestimating the cost or harm of a certain decision to someone else or some other group of people. In comparing the risks to human health or safety against, say, the risks of job or profit losses, cost-benefit analyses will often try to compare apples to oranges and put arbitrary numerical values on human health and safety. Duties, according to Kant, are not specific to particular kinds of human beings but are owed universally to all human beings. Kant therefore uses "universalizing" as a form of rational thought that assumes the inherent equality of all human beings. It considers all humans as equal, not in the physical, social, or economic sense, but equal before God, whether they are male, female, Pygmy, Eskimoan, Islamic, Christian, gay, straight, healthy, sick, young, or old. For Kantian thinkers, this basic principle of equality means that we should be able to universalize any particular law or action to determine whether it is ethical. For example, if you were to consider misrepresenting yourself on a resume for a particular job you really wanted and you were convinced that doing so would get you that job, you might be very tempted to do so. When I have the job, I can prove that I was perfect for it, and no one is hurt, while both the employer and I are clearly better off as a result! There are two requirements for a rule of action to be universal: consistency and reversibility. Again, deontologyrequires that we put duty first, act rationally, and give moral weight to the inherent equality of all human beings. In considering whether to lie on your resume, reversibility requires you to actively imagine both that you were the employer in this situation and that you were another well-qualified applicant who lost the job because someone else padded his resume with false accomplishments. If the consequences of such an exercise of the imagination are not appealing to you, your action is probably not ethical. The second requirement for an action to be universal is the search for consistency. A deontologist would say that since you know you are telling a lie, you must be willing to say that lying, as a general, universal phenomenon, is acceptable. It is only because honesty works well for society as a whole and is generally practiced that lying even becomes possible! That is, lying cannot be universalized, for it depends on the preexistence of honesty. Similar demonstrations can be made for actions such as polluting, breaking promises, and committing most crimes, including rape, murder, and theft. In the gray areas of life as it is lived, the consistency test is often difficult to apply. If breaking a promise would save a life, then Kantian thought becomes difficult to apply. If some amount of pollution can allow employment and the harm is minimal or distant, Kantian thinking is not all that helpful. Finally, we should note that the well-known Golden Rule, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you," emphasizes the easier of the two universalizing requirements: practicing reversibility ("How would I like it if someone did this to me Social Justice Theory and Social Contract Theory Social justice theorists worry about "distributive justice"-that is, what is the fair way to distribute goods among a group of people Marxist thought emphasizes that members of society should be given goods to according to their needs. But this redistribution would require a governing power to decide who gets what and when. Capitalist thought takes a different approach, rejecting any giving that is not voluntary. Certain economists, such as the late Milton Friedman (see the sidebar in Section 2.
Biological maturation and experience interact to push children through four universal asthma symptoms after exercise discount fluticasone 250 mcg, invariant asthma treatment definition order 500mcg fluticasone mastercard, and qualitatively different stages of thinking: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The sociocultural perspective on cognitive development offered by a contemporary of Piaget, Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, has become quite influential in recent years. Each culture provides its members with certain tools of thought-most notably a language but also tools such as pencils, art media, mathematical systems, and computers. The ways in which people in a particular culture approach and solve problems are passed from generation to generation through oral and written communication. As a result, cognitive development is not the same universally; it varies across social and historical contexts. And whereas Piaget tended to see children as independent explorers, Vygotsky saw them as social beings who develop their minds through their interactions with parents, teachers, and other knowledgeable members of their culture. Other challenges to Piaget came from scholars who saw a need to look more closely at the processes involved in thinking and factors affecting those processes. The informationprocessing approach to cognition, which became the dominant perspective starting in the 1980s, likens the human mind to a computer with hardware and software and emphasizes fundamental mental processes such as attention, memory, decision making, and the like. Development involves changes in the capacity and speed of the information-processing machine we call the brain and in the strategies we use to process information. This approach is the focus of Chapter 8 and has guided research not only on attention, memory, and problem solving but also on gender, social cognition, and many other topics addressed in this book. How do you think Piaget would explain why adolescents are more able than preschool children to participate in coherent conversations with a social partner Changes in the person produce changes in his environment; changes in the environment produce changes in the person. The individual and the physical and social contexts with which he or she interacts are inseparable parts of a larger system. Moreover, development does not always leads in one direction toward some mature endpoint like formal-operational thought, as stage theorists tend to believe. It can proceed in a variety of directions and take a variety of forms depending on the complex interplay between biological and environmental influences. The individual, with her biologically based characteristics, is embedded in and interacts with four environmental systems. He emphasized that human development takes place in the context of our evolutionary history as a species and arises from ongoing interactions between biological and environmental influences. Although Bronfenbrenner started out interested in the environment and increasingly realized that biological influences on development were equally important, Gottlieb started out as a biologist and increasingly became convinced of the importance of environmental influences. And they have studied the role of environmental stimuli in triggering instinctive behaviors such as the tendency of young birds to follow their mothers, dominance hierarchies in groups of chimpanzees, and parenting behavior in a variety of species. Sometimes ethologists just observe, and sometimes they conduct experiments to determine how different environmental stimuli affect the development of species-typical patterns of behavior. Ethologists suggest that humans, like other species, display species-specific behaviors that are the products of evolution and assist them in adapting to their environment. In Chapter 3, we will look at the basics of Darwinian evolutionary theory, and in Chapter 14, we will discuss attachment theory, an influential perspective rooted in both psychoanalytic theory and ethological theory. Attachment theorists view the formation of close relationships between human infants and their caregivers as evolved behavior that increases the odds that the young will survive. We will also discuss throughout this book the work of modern evolutionary psychologists, which raises fundamental questions about why humans think and behave as they do (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2002; Ellis & Bjorklund, 2005). Similarities between animals and humans make us suspect that many aspects of human development are the product of evolution. In his tremendously influential theory of evolution, Charles Darwin (1859) maintained that genes that aid their bearers in adapting to their environment will be passed on to future generations more frequently than genes that do not (see Chapter 3). Evolutionary theory therefore prompts us to ask how the characteristics and behaviors we commonly observe in humans today may have helped our ancestors adapt to their environment and consequently may have become part of the shared genetic endowment of our species. Noted ethologists Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen asked how many apparently innate, species-typical animal behaviors might be adaptive in the sense that they contribute to survival. Ethologists maintain that behavior is adaptive only in relation to a particular environment (for example, nomadic wandering makes sense in an environment in which food is scarce but not in an environment in which it is abundant); as a result, they believed that it was essential to study behavior and development in its natural contexts using naturalistic observation. So, for example, they have recorded birdsongs in the wild, analyzed their features carefully, explored how male birds learn Gilbert Gottlieb sought to understand how biology and environment interact to produce development. It is possible to focus on the interplay of nature and nurture both at the level of the species interacting with its environment over the course of evolution and at the level of the individual, with his unique genetic makeup, interacting with his unique environment over the course of a lifetime (Li, 2003).